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East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, and North Korea to the north. Its capital is Seoul. South Korea lies in a temperate climate region with a predominantly mountainous terrain. Its territory covers a total area of 99,392 square kilometers[5] and has a population of 50 million.

Archaeological findings show that the Korean Peninsula was occupied by the Lower Paleolithic period.[6][7] Korean history begins with the founding of Gojoseon in 2333 BC by the legendary Dan-gun. Following the unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea under Silla 668 AD, Korea went through the Goryeo Dynasty and Joseon Dynasty as one nation until the end of the Korean Empire in 1910, when Korea was annexed by Japan. After liberation and occupation by Soviet and U.S. forces at the end of World War II, the nation was divided into North and South Korea. The latter was established in 1948 as a democracy.

After the invasion of South Korea by forces from the North on 25 June 1950, the resulting war between the two Koreas ended in an uneasy cease-fire, and the border between the two nations is currently the most heavily fortified in the world After transformed into a major economy a full democracy, awas nd a regional power in East Asia.

South Korea is a presidential republic consisting of sixteen administrative divisions and is a developed country with a very high standard of living. It is Asia's fourth largest economy and the world's 15th (nominal) or 12th (purchasing power parity) largest economy. The economy is export-driven, with production focusing on electronics, automobiles, ships, machinery, petrochemicals and robotics. South Korea is a member of the United Nations, WTO, OECD and G-20 major economies. It is also a founding member of APEC and the East Asia Summit.

Korean history begins with the legendary founding of Joseon (often known as "Gojoseon" to prevent confusion with another dynasty founded in the 14th century; the prefix Go- means 'old' or 'earlier') in 2333 BC by Dangun, according to Korean foundation mythology.[10] Gojoseon expanded until it controlled northern Korean Peninsula and some parts of Manchuria. After numerous conflicts with the Chinese Han Dynasty, Gojoseon disintegrated, leading to the Proto-Three Kingdoms of Korea period.

In the early centuries of the Common Era, Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye, and the Samhan confederacy occupied the peninsula and southern Manchuria. Of the various small states, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla grew to control the peninsula as Three Kingdoms of Korea. The unification of the Three Kingdoms by Silla in 676 led to the North South States Period, in which much of the Korean Peninsula was controlled by Unified Silla, while Balhae succeeded the northern parts of Goguryeo. In Unified Silla, poetry and art was encouraged, and Buddhist culture flourished. Relationships between Korea and China remained relatively peaceful during this time. However, Unified Silla weakened under internal strife, and surrendered to Goryeo in 935. Balhae, Silla's neighbor to the north, was formed as a successor state to Goguryeo. During its height, Balhae controlled most of Manchuria and parts of Russia. It fell to the Khitan in 926.

The peninsula was united by Emperor Taejo of Goryeo in 936. Like Silla, Goryeo was a highly cultural state and created the Jikji in 1377, using the world's oldest movable metal printing press.[11] The Mongol invasions in the 13th century greatly weakened Goryeo. After nearly 30 years of war, Goryeo continued to rule Korea, though as a tributary ally to the Mongols. After the Mongolian Empire collapsed, severe political strife followed and the Goryeo Dynasty was replaced by the Joseon Dynasty in 1388 following a rebellion by General Yi Seong-gye.

King Taejo declared the new name of Korea as "Joseon" in reference to Gojoseon, and moved the capital to Seoul. The first 200 years of the Joseon Dynasty were marked by relative peace and saw the creation of Hangul by King Sejong the Great in the 14th century and the rise in influence of Confucianism in the country.

Gyeongbok Palace is the largest of the Five Grand Palaces built during the Joseon Dynasty.

Between 1592 and 1598, the Japanese invaded Korea. Toyotomi Hideyoshi led the forces and tried to invade the Asian continent through Korea, but was eventually repelled by the Righteous army and assistance from Ming Dynasty China. This war also saw the rise of Admiral Yi Sun-sin and his renowned "turtle ship". In the 1620s and 1630s, Joseon suffered from invasions by the Manchu who eventually conquered all of China.

After another series of wars against Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. King Yeongjo and King Jeongjo especially led a new renaissance of the Joseon Dynasty.

However, the latter years of the Joseon Dynasty were marked by excessive dependence on China for external affairs and isolation from the outside world. During the 19th century, Korea's isolationist policy earned it the name the "Hermit Kingdom". The Joseon Dynasty tried to protect itself against Western imperialism, but was eventually forced to open trade. After the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, Korea came under Japanese colonial rule (1910–1945). At the end of World War II, the Japanese surrendered to Soviet and U.S. forces who occupied the northern and southern halves of Korea, respectively.

View of Seoul's Gangnam district today

[edit] After division

Main article: History of South Korea

Despite the initial plan of a unified Korea in the 1943 Cairo Declaration, escalating Cold War antagonism between the Soviet Union and the United States eventually led to the establishment of separate governments, each with its own ideology, leading to Korea's division into two political entities in 1948: North Korea and South Korea. In the North, a former anti-Japanese guerrilla and communist activist, Kim Il-sung gained power through Soviet support, and in the South, an exiled and right-wing Korean political leader, Syngman Rhee, was installed as president.

The Seoul Olympic Stadium, seen from the Han River, hosted the 1988 Summer Olympics.

On 25 June 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, sparking the Korean War, the Cold War's first major conflict. At the time, the Soviet Union had boycotted the United Nations (UN), thus forfeiting their veto rights. This allowed the UN to intervene in a civil war when it became apparent that the superior North Korean forces would unify the entire country. The Soviet Union and China backed North Korea, with the later participation of millions of Chinese troops. After huge advances on both sides, and massive losses among Korean civilians in both the north and the south, the war eventually reached a stalemate. The 1953 armistice, never signed by South Korea, split the peninsula along the demilitarized zone near the original demarcation line. No peace treaty was signed, resulting in the two countries remaining technically at war. At least 2.5 million people died during the Korean War.[12]

In 1960, a student uprising led to the resignation of the autocratic President Syngman Rhee. A period of political instability followed, broken by General Park Chung-hee's military coup (the "5–16 coup d'état") against the weak and ineffectual government the next year. Park took over as president until his assassination in 1979, overseeing rapid export-led economic growth as well as severe political repression. Park was heavily criticised as a ruthless military dictator, although the Korean economy developed significantly during his tenure.

The years after Park's assassination were marked again by considerable political turmoil as the previously repressed opposition leaders all campaigned to run for president in the sudden political void. In 1980 there was another coup d'état by General Chun Doo-hwan against the transitional government of Choi Kyu Hah, the interim president and a former prime minister under Park. Chun assumed the presidency, triggering nationwide protests demanding democracy, in particular in the city of Gwangju, where Chun sent special forces to violently suppress the Gwangju Democratization Movement.[13]

Chun and his government held Korea under a despotic rule until 1987, when a Seoul National University student was tortured to death.[14] On 10 June, the Catholic Priests Association for Justice revealed the incident, igniting huge demonstrations around the country. Eventually, Chun's party, the Democratic Justice Party, and its leader, Roh Tae-woo announced the June 29th Declaration, which included the direct election of the president. Roh went on to win the election by a narrow margin against the two main opposition leaders, Kim Dae-Jung and Kim Young-Sam.

In 1988, Seoul hosted the 1988 Summer Olympics. It became a member of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1996.[15] It was adversely affected by the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. However, the country was able to recover and continue its economic growth, albeit at a slower pace.

In June 2000, as part of president Kim Dae-Jung's "Sunshine Policy" of engagement, a North–South summit took place in Pyongyang, the capital of North Korea. Later that year, Kim received the Nobel Peace Prize "for his work for democracy and human rights in South Korea and in East Asia in general, and for peace and reconciliation with North Korea in particular."[16]

Cheonggyecheon (Hangul: 청계천) is a nearly 6 km long, modern public recreation space in downtown Seoul, South Korea. The massive urban renewal project is on the site of a stream that flowed before the rapid post-war economic development required it to be covered by transportation infrastructure. The $900 million project initially attracted much public criticism, but after opening in 2005 has become popular among city residents and tourists.

The stream was named Gaecheon ("open stream") after the first refurbishment project to construct a drainage system during the Joseon Dynasty. The work, which included dredging and bolstering the banks of the stream and building the bridges, was carried out every 2~3 years during this period from the reign of Taejong, the third king of the Joseon Dynasty. King Yeonjo especially undertook the refurbishment work as a national project[1].

Gacheon was renamed to Cheonggyecheon, its current name, during the Japanese colonial period. During this time, financial difficulties prevented the colonialists from covering up the stream despite several attempts to do so.[2].

After the Korean War (1950-1953), more people migrated into Seoul to make their living and settled down along the stream in shabby makeshift houses. The accompanying trash, sand, and waste, and deteriorating conditions resulted in an eyesore in the city. The stream was covered up with concrete step by step for 20 years since 1958, and a 5.6 km-long, 16 m-wide elevated highway was completed in 1976. The area became an example of successful industrialization and modernization of South Korea.[2]

In July 2003, then-Seoul mayor, current President Lee Myung-bak  initiated a project to remove the elevated highway and restore the stream. It was a major undertaking as not only did the highway have to be removed, but as years of neglect and development had left the stream nearly totally dry, 120,000 tons of water had to be pumped in daily.[3]  At that time, safety problems also occurred due to the deteriorated concrete construction. Despite this, restoration of Cheonggyecheon was deemed important as it fit in with the movement to re-introduce nature to the city and to promote a more eco-friendly urban design. Other goals of the project were to restore the history and culture of the region, which had been lost for 30 years, and to revitalize the economy of metropolis, Seoul.

The Seoul Metropolitan Government established several organizations to oversee the successful restoration of Cheonggyecheon: The Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project Headquarters for the control of the whole project, Citizen's Committee for Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project for the management of conflict between Seoul Metropolitan Government and the union of merchants, and Cheonggyecheon Restoration Research Corps for the establishment and review of the restoration plan.

To address the consequential traffic problem, the Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project Headquarters established traffic flow measures in the downtown section affected by the restoration work and coordinated changes in the downtown traffic system based on the research of the Cheonggyecheon Restoration Research Corps.[2]

The restoration of two historic bridges, Gwangtonggyo and Supyogyo, was also a contentious issue, as several interest groups voiced opinions on how to restore historical and cultural sites and remains, and whether replace the bridges or not.[2]

The Cheonggyecheon restoration project had the purpose of preserving the unique identity of the natural environment and the historic resources in the CBD of Seoul, and to reinforce the surrounding business area with information technology, international affairs and digital industries [4]. The plan also encouraged the return of the pedestrian-friendly road network connecting the stream with traditional resources, e.g. Bukchon, Daehangno, Jungdong, Namchon and Donhwamungil. This network system, named the CCB (Cheonggyecheon Culture Belt), tried to build up the foundation of cultural and environmental basis of the city.

[edit] Achievements

The stream was opened to the public in September 2005 and was lauded as a major success in urban renewal and beautification. However, there was considerable opposition from the previous mayoral administration of Goh Kun, which feared gentrification of the adjacent areas that housed many shops and small businesses in the machine trades.

The restoration work is expected to lay the basis for Seoul to become a human-oriented, environmentally-friendly city, and to cause a series of innovations in the urban planning paradigm. Creating the environment with clean water and natural habitats was the most significant achievement. Species of fish, birds, and insects have increased significantly as a result of the stream excavation. [5] The stream helps to cool down the temperature on the nearby areas by 3.6 °C on average versus other parts of Seoul[6]. The number of vehicles entering downtown Seoul has shown a decrease of 2.3%, with an increasing number of users of buses (by 1.4%) and subways (by 4.3% - daily average of 430,000 people) as a result of the demolition of the two high-used roads [7]. This supposedly has a positive influence by improving the atmospheric environment in the region.

The project attempted to promote the urban economy through amplifying urban infrastructure for a competitive city within the existing business and industrial area centered on the stream. The Urban renewal project was the catalyst of revitalization in downtown Seoul. Cheonggyecheon became a centre for cultural and economic activities.

Cheonggyecheon restoration work also brought balance to the areas both in south and north of the stream. During the modernization era, downtown Seoul was divided into two parts, north-south, based on their features and function. The restoration helped to join these two parts in order to create a new urban structure connecting the cultural and environmental resources in northern and southern areas of the stream (Hwang n.d.), resulting in a balanced and sustainable development of northern and southern areas of the Han River.

Cheonggyecheon Stream used to exist merely as an overpass neglected in 1970 until it was restored in 2005, becoming a haven of natural beauty amidst the bustle of city life.

Narae Bridge, expressing a butterfly in flight, and Gwanggyo Bridge, symbolizing the harmony of the past and future, are just two of the more than twenty beautiful bridges featured along the path of the stream. The ‘Rhythmic Wall Stream’, lined with fine marble, various sculptures, and Korea’s 8th stone building, Palseokdam, adorn the Cheonggyecheon Stream.

Cheonggyecheon Stream offers many beautiful sights to see and enjoy:
l The grand fountain, located in Cheonggye Plaza
l Dapgyonori on the Gwangtong Bridge - a ritual of crossing the bridge on the first full moon of the new year to ensure that for one year, the one who crosses will not have any leg ailments.
l A ceramic mural of a king making a grand voyage to Hwaseong, Jeongjobanchando
l A colorful cloth wall made of fabrics from Dongdaemun’s fashion district
l A cultural wall painting by 5 local artists
l A reproduction of an area where folk woman used to do their laundry
l A wishing wall, where more than 20,000 people have written their deepest desires
l A tunnel fountain
l Jonchigyogak, an angle of intersection left behind when the Cheonggye overpass was removed
l The aquatic life dwelling among the willows

Furthermore, the Deoksugung Palace, Seoul Plaza, the Sejong Center, Insa-dong Street, the Changdeokgung Palace, and the Changgyeonggung Palace all lie adjacent to the Cheonggyecheon Stream, allowing visitors to easily visit the tourism sites after a leisurely stroll along the stream.

In 2002, South Korea and Japan jointly co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup, however South Korean and Japanese relations later soured due to conflicting claims of sovereignty over the Liancourt Rocks (referred to as Dokdo in Korea, and Takeshima in Japan), in what became known as the Liancourt Rocks dispute


 

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The Great King Sejong

Sejong the Great (세종대왕, 世宗大王 in Korean),May 6, 1397 – May 18, 1450; r. 1418 - 1450, was the fourth ruler of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea, and a beloved Korean folk hero. Highly educated and a gifted military strategist, he is most famous for commissioning the creation of the phonetic Korean alphabet Hangul by scholars of the Hall of Worthies, despite strong opposition from officials educated in Hanja (Chinese character); the "Hangul" alphabet continues to be used today. King Sejong also established a library and an institution for scholarly research, and promoted men of talent to positions of authority in his government. Under his patronage Korean literature and culture flourished. He encouraged technological advances in weaponry and initiated the use of printing presses.

 King Sejong is one of only two Korean rulers honored with the appellation the "Great," the other being Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo, the king who expanded Korean territory to China and Manchuria. King Sejong was honored with the appellation “Great” for his accomplishments and contributions.

King Sejong supported the development of literature and encouraged higher officials and scholars to study at his court. His most valuable cultural legacy was the enactment of Hunmin jeong eum (훈민정음) (“Correct Sounds to Instruct the People”). King Sejong oversaw the creation of a phonetic alphabet, Hangul, consisting of vowels, diphtongs (double-vowels), consonants and double-consonants, and presented it to the Korean people in the Hunmin jeong eum (훈민정음), an announcement composed of both Hangul and Hanja. The Korean people now had an alphabet which could be used to transcribe their own language. Some scholars have thought that such a complex project, the invention of a new written alphabet, must have required research by a team of linguists over a long period of time. Documents show, however, that King Sejong, who was himself an eminent linguist and phonetician, worked quickly in secret with a small staff of scholars. Thirteen times he sent his linguists to consult a famous Chinese phonetician who was living in exile in Manchuria.

 In his Preface to the Hunmin jeong eum (훈민정음), King Sejong explained why he was introducing the new alphabet:

     Our country’s phonetics are different from the Chinese language and the two languages cannot relate to each other. Because of this, when Korean people want to speak and express themselves using Chinese writing, they are unable to do so. As I regret this situation, I have created a new alphabet of twenty-eight characters, which the Korean people can easily learn and use in their daily lives.

 Conservative pro-Chinese government officials opposed the usage of Hangul, calling it onmun or “vernacular language” and citing the superiority of the use of Chinese characters (Hanja). Although the upper classes mostly refused to learn Hangul, the new, simple writing system enabled the women of Yangban families and the commoners to be literate, providing a means of general communication and contributing to the rise of a new culture in Korea. King Sejong established the Office for Publication in Hangul, which published such works as his own Yongbi Eocheon Ga (“Songs of Flying Dragons”, 1445, a tribute to the virtues of the royal ancestors).

 King Sejong also composed Seokbo Sangjeol (Episodes from the Life of Buddha, July, 1447); Worin Cheon-gang Jigok (Songs of the Moon Shining on a Thousand Rivers, July 1447); and the reference work Dongguk Jeong-un (Dictionary of Proper Sino-Korean Pronunciation, September 1447).

 King Sejong gathered intellectuals from all over Korea, and in 1420, established a Hall of Worthies (집현전; 集賢殿; Jiphyeonjeon) in the royal palace. The scholars of the Hall of Worthies documented history, drafted documents and compiled books on various topics. Furthermore, King Sejong ordered that promising young scholars be selected and sent to study at a temple in the mountains which later became the site of a library. Scholars there read not only Confucian works but the books of other Chinese scholars, and works on astronomy, geography, medicine, and augury.

 Following the principles of Neo-Confucianism, King Sejong was also a humanitarian. He reformed the legal system with a decree that there must be three trials before a final judgment was reached, and prohibited brutality, such as flogging, in the punishment of criminals.

King Sejong was the fourth king of the Yi dynasty of Korea, which was the dynasty that ruled the country from 1392-1910. He was born in 1397 and ruled from 1412-50. Sejong is recognized as one of Korea's greatest kings and his most well-known achievement was the introduction of the Korean script, Hangul. Hangul is a script of 24 letters, 10 of which are vowels and 14 consonants. It is an almost entirely phonetic language and is exceptionally easy to learn and write: indeed, there is no real phrase in the Korean language for "How do you spell ...?"

Korea at the beginning of the Yi dynasty was dominated by the influence of Chinese culture, Confucianism and Buddhist priests. While he wanted to retain the religious nature of the court, Sejong banished the Buddhist priests from the capital Seoul because they had too strong a stranglehold on learning and prevented ordinary people obtaining access to civil service posts and the possibility of advancement. Just as importantly, the Korean people were unable to express themselves and explain their opinions and emotions because understanding of the Chinese language and the characters it used were restricted to a small elite and the majority of people had to rely on informal language and slang. King Sejong's purpose, therefore, was to broaden understanding of a genuine Korean form of expression which would be available to all Korean people and which would, at the same time, help to free them from forms of thinking imposed upon them by having to use an alien language. This would also help to reinforce a sense of independence for the Korean nation. Sejong also introduced rules permitting scholars and civil servants to drink alcohol and, occasionally at least, consort with women. This made the role of scholar rather more attractive and helped free it from a religious stranglehold. By opening the position of scholar to a potentially much larger body of applicants, therefore, Sejong was responsible for much more democratic access to power and enabled the brightest talents in the kingdom to be of service to the state.

To demonstrate the practicality of Hangul as a language and medium, Sejong himself composed the 'Songs of the Moon's Reflection on a Thousand Rivers' [worin chongang chingok] which praised the life of the Buddha and exemplified the new akchang form of literary expression: creating new forms of artistic endeavour was particularly important because Hangul does not provide the opportunities for calligraphy that Chinese characters do.

Engineers at Japan's stricken Fukushima nuclear power plant have successfully connected a power line to reactor 2, the UN's nuclear watchdog reports.

Restoring power should enable engineers to restart the pumps which send coolant over the reactor.

Workers at Fukushima have been battling to prevent fuel in the reactors from overheating since Friday's magnitude 9.0 quake and subsequent tsunami.

The confirmed death toll from the disaster has risen above 5,400.

More than 9,500 people are missing and tens of thousands of people are living in temporary shelters.

US President Barack Obama has said he is confident the "strong, resilient" people of Japan will recover from the crisis and that the country will emerge stronger than before.

The atomic crisis was triggered when the power supply to Fukushima was damaged by the natural disaster and back-up generators failed.

Japan has imposed a 20-km (12-mile) exclusion zone around Fukushima and has urged people living up to 30km away to stay indoors. Some countries have advised their nationals in Japan to stay up to 50km away.

Tens of thousands of people are still struggling with the after effects of last Friday's massive quake, which triggered a tsunami that swept away whole towns in minutes.

In areas of the north-east badly hit by the tsunami, bitter winter weather has added to the misery of survivors, though more supplies are now reported to be reaching them.

Japan's Kyodo news agency quoted rescuers as saying that the search for victims had expanded over a wider area as access had improved with the clearance of debris.

The number of people now known to have died in the twin disaster stands at 5,692 with 9,506 people listed as missing.

But Kyodo reports that the official toll is based on names registered with police, and that the true figure could be in the tens of thousands.

About 380,000 people are currently still in temporary shelters, many sleeping on the floor of school gymnasiums.

Many foreign countries are evacuating their nationals from northeast Japan, or advising them to leave the country entirely.

The crisis has also continued to affect the markets - the benchmark Nikkei index fell 3.6% in early Thursday trading in Tokyo, shortly after the yen briefly hit the highest level against the US dollar since World War II.

The attempt to use helicopters to dump seawater on to the Fukushima power station is almost certainly unprecedented in more than half a century of nuclear power operations around the world.

And the long-range video images coming in indicate why it is not a method in general use: it does not appear to work.

The helicopters flew in some way above the reactor buildings, and went past without hovering - presumably because of fears of radiation.

Later, at a news conference given by the Tokyo Electric Power Company (Tepco), a spokesman said they were not able to tell whether any of the water had been successfully delivered.

Satellite photo of plant A satellite photo shows steam rising from the site around reactor buildings 1-4

In the absence of hard facts from the ground, the video footage is the only evidence we have on how much of the 60 tonnes of seawater delivered onto the site actually hit their target - the building containing reactor number 3.

Do watch, and judge for yourself how much fell on the square building and how much floated away on the wind.

While many reports have suggested the water was intended to cool the reactors, the actual target was the cooling pool (or pond) in building number 3, just below what remains of the roof ripped apart by a hydrogen gas explosion three days previously.

The reactors sit within containment systems designed to be sealed tight, and which appear to be intact, with the possible exception of a crack in a vessel attached to number 3 reactor; so dumping water from the air would not have any impact.

Earlier reports said the pond in number 4 building would also be targeted. This probably contains many more fuel rods than the pond in number 3, because at the time of the earthquake reactors 4, 5 and 6 were shut down for scheduled maintenance, which involved removing all the fuel.

he worst-case scenario would see the ponds starting to emit serious amounts of radiation, with some of the reactors going into a meltdown phase”

The company said that because steam was rising from building 3, they targeted that one first - though it is not clear whether the steam was coming from the cooling pond or the reactor, which has been suffering from cooling problems ever since emergency power ran out following Friday's tsunami.

The company noted that at 1000 local time, radiation levels were four times higher around building 3 than building 4.

However, the building 4 pond still clearly has a problem.

On Wednesday, the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), which has a team of 11 experts advising in Japan, said the pond was completely dry - though this assessment has been challenged by the company.

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) released a bulletin giving temperatures in the ponds measured on different days.

Readings for building 4's pond on Tuesday and Wednesday were both 84C - way above normal, and about 25C higher than the equivalent ponds in buildings 5 and 6.

Thursday's entry for building 4 reads: "no data".

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